The witches of Greece and Asia Minor during the 19th century

The witches of Greece and Asia Minor during the 19th century were part of a complex tapestry of folk beliefs, superstitions, and cultural practices deeply rooted in ancient traditions. While the concept of "witchcraft" varied from region to region, several common themes can be identified.

The 19th century was a period of significant change in Greece and Asia Minor, marked by political upheavals, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and the emergence of Greek nationalism. Folk beliefs persisted despite the increasing influence of modernity and the Orthodox Church. In rural areas, old pagan traditions blended with Christian practices, giving rise to unique forms of folk magic and witchcraft.

Types of Witches and Magical Practitioners

• Magissa/Magissa (Μάγισσα): In Greece, a "magissa" was often seen as a woman with magical abilities. These practitioners were sometimes feared but also respected, as they could heal or curse.

• Hodja (Χότζας) and Folk Healers: In Asia Minor, especially in regions with a mixed Greek and Turkish population, local folk healers might use amulets and charms to protect against the evil eye or malevolent spirits.

  
  

Practices and Beliefs

• Healing and Harm: Witches were believed to have the power to heal ailments or cause harm, often through potions, incantations, or cursed objects.

• Divination: Fortune-telling was common, using methods like coffee reading (καφεμαντεία) and dream interpretation.

• Love Spells: There was a strong tradition of using love magic, with women particularly seeking help to attract or control lovers.

• Amulets and Apotropaic Magic: Blue beads, crosses, and specific herbs (like rue) were used to ward off evil.

• Baskania (Βασκανία) and the Evil Eye: Many witches were believed to control or combat the evil eye, which was a prevalent fear across the region.

• Folk Magic (Λαϊκή Μαγεία): This involved using herbs, incantations, and rituals, often passed down through generations.

In contrast to the widespread witch hunts in Western Europe, accusations in Greece and Asia Minor tended to be more localized and less organized. Communities often accepted witches if they provided beneficial services, like healing, although social stigma frequently arose if an individual was suspected of practicing harmful magic. The Orthodox Church typically denounced witchcraft, yet priests occasionally conducted blessings to neutralize suspected curses.

The perception of witches from the 19th century has evolved, with many modern Greeks viewing these historical figures through a lens of folklore rather than fear. Contemporary folk practices still retain some of these elements, particularly in rural areas where traditional beliefs persist.

Though not as widespread as in Western Europe, accusations of witchcraft occasionally led to trials in some regions. In parts of Asia Minor, particularly in the rural areas, women who were known to practice folk magic or were perceived as using harmful spells might be accused of witchcraft. These accusations could lead to social ostracism or even execution in extreme cases. However, most often, the punishment would be less severe, ranging from being shunned to being forced to leave town.

Here are a few specific examples of rituals and stories related to witchcraft and folk magic in Greece and Asia Minor during the 19th century:

1. The Evil Eye (Baskania):

• Rituals for Protection: One of the most common beliefs in both Greece and Asia Minor was the idea of the "evil eye" (baskania), where someone could cast a malevolent glance that caused harm, illness, or misfortune. Families would burn herbs like sage or incense to keep witches and the evil eye away. Also, children were instructed not to wander after dark to avoid being snatched or cursed.

• The Use of Charms: People would wear amulets to protect themselves, such as a blue glass bead, which is still used today. These beads were thought to reflect or absorb the harmful energy of the evil eye.

• The Ritual of Exorcism (Ξεματιάσμα): If someone was believed to have been cursed by the evil eye, a ritual called "ξεματιάσμα" (xemátiasma) was performed to remove the curse. This often involved a healer or witch using special prayers, olive oil, and the sign of the cross. In some cases, a raw egg would be passed over the person’s body to absorb the negative energy and then cracked in a bowl of water. The patterns in the egg whites were interpreted to reveal the cause of the illness.

  
  

  

  
  

Love Spells

In the 19th century, many women resorted to folk magic to win a lover's affection or ensure a husband's fidelity. A common method was brewing potions with certain herbs, which were thought to induce love or secure a relationship.

For love spells, herbs such as anise and cinnamon were frequently utilized. The ritual might involve burning these herbs, reciting particular incantations, or burying the herbs beneath a lover's doorstep to ensnare the man's heart. Another technique was crafting a "lover's knot" from thread, where specific knots were tied while chanting the desired person's name, believed to bind the individual's heart to the spellcaster.

Healing Magic

Many witches and healers used plants in their practices, believing certain herbs had powerful magical and medicinal properties. A few commonly used herbs included:

Rue : Rue was seen as a powerful herb for both protection and healing. It was used in rituals to protect from bad spirits or curses and was sometimes worn as a necklace to ward off the evil eye.

Garlic : Garlic was believed to have strong protective powers and was often hung in homes or carried as an amulet to drive away evil spirits.

 Witches and wise women would prepare potions or poultices for ailments like fever, headaches, and even to break curses. A common practice was placing a healing charm under the sick person’s pillow or burning specific herbs in their presence to cure them.

Divination and Fortune-Telling

• Coffee Reading (Καφεμαντεία): The tradition of reading coffee grounds (known as "kaffemanteia") was widespread in Greece and Asia Minor. After drinking a cup of strong coffee, the grounds left at the bottom were interpreted to reveal messages from the spirits or future events. Diviners, often women, would read the shapes formed by the remaining grounds and offer predictions about love, wealth, and health. This practice continues to this day in parts of Greece and Cyprus.

  
  
  
  

  

  
  
  
  

• Dream Interpretation (Ονειρομαντεία): Dream interpretation was another form of divination widely practiced in the region. People believed that certain dreams had specific meanings, and these interpretations could guide decisions about marriage, business, and even health. Witches or wise women in rural areas were often consulted to decode dreams, especially if they were seen as prophetic or unsettling.

  
  

Rituals for Cursing

A common method for casting a curse or hex was to use a personal item belonging to the target, such as hair, nails, or a piece of clothing. The witch would secretly take these items and use them in a ritual to cast a spell of misfortune or harm. This was believed to bind the curse directly to the person, causing illness or failure.

One famous legend involves a group of women in a small village in Asia Minor who were known to possess the ability to curse others. They were feared by their neighbors, who believed that the women could control the elements, bring bad weather, or even cause sudden illness. One story tells of a wealthy merchant who angered one of these witches. As a result, his entire fortune was said to vanish overnight, leaving him destitute.

These practices and beliefs show how deeply ingrained witchcraft and folk magic were in the cultural fabric of 19th-century Greece and Asia Minor. Even today, many of these traditions are still observed in rural areas, though their meanings and practices have evolved over time.

Rituals Involving Water

Sacred springs, referred to as "agiasmata," were believed to have healing and purifying properties. These springs were often linked to saints or ancient gods and were seen as places where witches and healers could gather magical water. It was common to collect water from a sacred spring at dawn, particularly on certain feast days. This water would then be used to wash the sick or sprinkle around the home for protection. Witches would use spring water for divination by pouring it into a bowl and observing the ripples to interpret omens. Occasionally, a single drop of oil was added, and its movement was interpreted as a sign.

Animal Transformations

It was believed that some witches had the ability to transform into animals, especially cats, wolves, or crows. A particular ritual required sacrificing a black hen at a crossroads at midnight to acquire the power to change shape. The witch would then gather the hen’s blood to use in potions or to create protective symbols on her doorstep. If someone suspected an animal of being a witch in disguise, they would throw salt at it or recite a holy prayer to compel the creature to revert to its human form.

Witchcraft Associated with Specific Days

The Twelve Days of Christmas (Δωδεκαήμερο):

• The period between Christmas and Epiphany (December 25 - January 6) was considered a time when evil spirits (kallikantzaroi) roamed freely. Witches were believed to be particularly powerful during these nights.

  
  

• Kalanta (Carols) as Spells: Singing Christmas carols was also believed to protect households from malevolent forces. In some areas, witches would join carolers to disguise their intentions, blending into the group to spy on the villagers.

Witchcraft in Daily Life

Bread Magic

Bread occupied a revered and symbolic role in Greek homes. It was believed that witches used bread as a medium for casting spells. A loaf would be baked with a particular person's name inscribed on it as a curse. The witch would then bury the bread at a crossroads, invoking spirits to bring misfortune to the individual. Conversely, bread blessed by a priest could be used to lift curses or safeguard a household. Women occasionally baked small loaves marked with crosses on top, distributing them to neighbours to fend off envy.

Komboloi (Worry Beads)

While commonly seen as a stress-relief tool, komboloi in the 19th century were also believed to serve a magical function. Witches would recite prayers or curses while threading the beads, charging them with intent. To protect against these enchanted beads, people would carry a red thread or a small silver cross along with their komboloi.

The Knotting Spell (Δέσιμο)

A potent spell, known as "Desimo" (binding), was used to punish unfaithful husbands or make someone fall in love with a girl.

It required a piece of the man's clothing, a lock of his hair, and a red ribbon.

The wife or the girl in love would tie nine knots in the ribbon while chanting:

“As I bind this knot, may your heart and soul be bound to me. As I tie this thread, may you never stray.”

The ribbon would then be buried under the husband's side of the bed. If the spell worked, the man would feel inexplicable guilt or be unable to engage in affairs.

It was believed that only the wife could untie the knots to break the spell.

Calling Down the Moon (Κατέβασμα του Φεγγαριού):

In rural Greece and Asia Minor, witches believed the moon possessed great magical power. They performed a ritual called "Katévasma tou Fengarioú" (Moon Calling) to tap into this energy. This ceremony took place during a full moon, often on a hilltop or by the sea. The witch would draw a circle on the ground using an olive or laurel branch and ignite a small fire in the center. She would then recite an ancient hymn, invoking the moon goddess (commonly associated with Selene or Artemis) to bestow power or unveil hidden truths.

The ritual was primarily used to enhance divination skills or to curse foes with madness, as the full moon was thought to cause insanity.

In the village of Kalloni on Lesvos, a woman named Marigoula was said to have used this ritual to eliminate a rival. Her adversary allegedly went insane after spending a night under the full moon, speaking incoherently until her demise.

Curses

Field Curses

Witches were often blamed if crops failed or animals became sick. One way to curse a field was to bury a clay jar filled with salt and ashes at the four corners of a plot, chanting words of misfortune. Farmers would scatter blessed salt or hang a small icon at each corner of the field to neutralize the magic. Sometimes, they would invite a healer to perform a cleansing ritual involving holy water and burning sage.

The Curse of the Olive Tree

In certain rural areas, there was a belief that a witch's curse on an olive tree could cause it to stop producing fruit or make its oil bitter. To safeguard their olive groves, farmers would hang blessed olive branches at the field entrances and hold a small blessing ceremony before each harvest. In one particular village, a grove did not produce olives for seven years. It was rumored that an old woman, upset after being refused oil, had cursed the trees. The trees only began to bloom again after the villagers made a collective offering at the local chapel, reinforcing the belief in the curse's power.

Tales and Practices

The Story of the Witch of Mytilene

A famous tale from the island of Mytilene recounts the story of a woman named Kyra-Lena, who was both feared and admired. It was believed that Kyra-Lena could transform into a black cat at night, sneaking through windows to pilfer milk and food from homes. One evening, a villager caught a cat stealing milk and hit it with a broom. The following day, Kyra-Lena appeared with an unexplained bruise on her arm, revealing her true nature. Instead of banishing her, the villagers decided to appease her by leaving small offerings of bread and cheese at her doorstep. In return, Kyra-Lena was said to have blessed the village, protecting it from plagues and drought.

The Story of the "Witch of Tinos"

 In the 19th century, there was a famous case of a woman in Tinos, an island in the Aegean, who was believed to possess powerful magical abilities. She was accused by locals of casting curses on people who disrespected her. Eventually, after a series of mysterious deaths and illnesses in the village, the woman was forced to leave, and the town fell silent in fear. After her departure, the ailments reportedly ceased, further cementing the idea that she had wielded dangerous powers.

 The Witch of Smyrna (Izmir)

Hala, a renowned witch from the port city of Smyrna, was believed to have control over the winds. Sailors were terrified of her, as it was rumored she could conjure storms to sink ships. When a wealthy merchant's ship went down, he blamed Hala, prompting a group of men to confront her.

Hala insisted that the sea was angry and that she had attempted to calm it. To demonstrate her abilities, she conducted a ritual on the shore, chanting and pouring wine into the water. The waves immediately calmed, and the men, intimidated by her power, never accused her again. Hala continued to live in the city, both respected and feared, with sailors leaving small offerings at her door before embarking on long voyages.

The Tale of the Wolf-Witch (Λυκάνθρωπος) of Thessaly:

A shepherd reported that his missing sheep had been killed by a monstrous wolf. One night, he wounded the creature, which then escaped into the forest. The following day, a local woman was discovered with a severe injury in the same location. Rumors quickly spread, and villagers began to avoid her, suspecting she was the wolf-witch. It was believed that shape-shifting witches could turn into wolves, particularly during the harsh winter months. A cloak made of wolf fur and a mixture of dog's blood and ash were used. At midnight, the witch would drink the concoction, chant to the spirits of the forest, and put on the cloak.The transformation was said to last until sunrise or until the witch removed the cloak.

The tale of Vasiliki The Nekromancer

In a small village near Smyrna, an elderly woman named Vasiliki was accused of resurrecting a dead man to learn where he had hidden his gold. The following morning, the villagers discovered her unconscious by the grave, mumbling about a "watchful spirit" that had cursed her for disturbing the peace. In regions of Epirus and Asia Minor, it was believed that witches could communicate with the dead to seek guidance or exact revenge. The ritual of necromancy was typically conducted at midnight in a graveyard or near the sea. A candle made from animal fat and herbs like wormwood would be lit. The witch would call the deceased by name three times, offering bread soaked in wine as a tribute.

The Midwife of Kavala

In a village close to Kavala, a midwife reputed for her abilities was held responsible when a newborn became ill soon after birth. The baby only recovered after she carried out a purification ritual, causing mixed opinions about her true nature. In numerous rural regions, women reputed for witchcraft also acted as midwives. Their expertise with herbs made them crucial during childbirth. To facilitate a smooth delivery, the midwife would burn laurel leaves and scatter salt around the birthing bed. Following the birth, she would tie a blue thread around the baby’s wrist to protect against evil spirits.

The Exorcism in Asia Minor

In a village in Asia Minor, a young man thought to be possessed underwent the ritual of exorcism by fire. The spirit was said to speak through him, pleading for freedom. As the herbs burned, he collapsed and later claimed to remember nothing. The exorcism by fire was another widely held belief. It was thought that fire could drive evil spirits from a person's body. The ceremony involved a large fire, with the possessed person brought close to the flames without being burned. A witch or priest would chant prayers while waving burning herbs, such as thyme or rosemary, over the afflicted individual. If the person reacted violently, it was considered evidence of possession. After the ritual, the burned herbs were buried at a crossroads to prevent the spirit from returning.

The Amulet of Dodekaimeron

A family in Aydın credited their Dodeckaimeron amulet with saving them from a fire that destroyed nearby homes. The flames reportedly halted right at their doorstep, where the amulet was displayed. The Dodeckaimeron amulet, inspired by the Twelve Days of Christmas, was crafted on New Year’s Eve and believed to offer protection against evil spirits throughout the year. To create this amulet, a small pouch containing herbs (basil, bay leaf), a silver coin, and a red thread was required. It then had to be blessed at a church before being hung above the main door of the house.

These stories and rituals reflect the fascinating blend of fear, respect, and pragmatism surrounding witches in 19th-century Greece and Asia Minor. The line between healer and witch was often blurred, and many rituals served dual purposes of protection and casting spells.

Anastasia Diakidi