The History of Magic: The Roots of Magic in Antiquity (Part 1)

Magic was born together with humankind. From the dawn of history—long before the first myths were written or organized religions were founded—human beings sought ways to communicate with the invisible, to protect themselves from the forces of nature, and to ensure the prosperity of their communities. The earliest magical acts were inseparably linked with survival: hunting, the fertility of the earth, and the banishment of spirits that caused illness or misfortune. Thus, from prehistory to the great ancient civilizations, magic stood as a bridge between humanity and the mystery of the world.

In prehistoric societies, the shaman was the central figure of magic—healer, seer, and psychopomp—serving as mediator between the world of humans and the world of spirits. The cave paintings of Lascaux and Altamira, depicting animals pierced by arrows or caught in hunting scenes, are considered magical images—ritual spells to ensure success in the hunt. The shaman wore animal masks to identify with the spirits, used drums to enter trance states, and carried bone amulets for protection. Herbs and psychoactive mushrooms opened the door to altered states of consciousness, bringing him into contact with forces invisible to the ordinary eye.

The Mesopotamian tradition brought magic closer to the notion of “science.” The Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians recorded magical texts on clay tablets, preserving exorcisms, invocations, and rituals. At their core lay astrology—the observation of the stars and the belief that their movements reflected the destinies of people and kingdoms. Exorcists, known as āšipu, used long invocations of deities to drive away the spirits that caused disease. At the same time, amulets in the form of demonic beings—such as the terrifying Pazuzu—were placed in homes for protection. As noted by Lambert in The Magical Texts of Mesopotamia (1996), the magic of that era was not a marginal practice but an organic part of both society and state religion.

In Egypt, magic and religion were indistinguishable. The renowned Magical Papyri, such as the Papyrus Harris and Papyrus Ebers, combined spells, healing recipes, and invocations to deities like Thoth and Isis. The use of amulets was an everyday practice: the Eye of Horus protected health and the soul, while the scarab symbolized rebirth and eternity. The magician invoked divine power through figurines, wands, and symbols—either to safeguard the dead on their journey through the afterlife or to shield the living from evil. As demonstrated in Betz’s collection The Egyptian Magical Papyri in Translation (1986), Egyptian magic represents one of the first fully structured magical systems in history.

In ancient Greece and Rome, magic took on more complex forms, interwoven with philosophy, mystery cults, and everyday life. The Orphic Hymns served as mystical texts with ritual use, where the hymn functioned as an invocation of divine powers. A special place is held by the defixiones, or curse tablets—thin lead sheets inscribed with binding spells, often for love matters or to secure victory in court. These tablets were buried in tombs or wells so that the spell could pass into the underworld and reach the ears of gods or spirits. The witches of poetry, such as Medea and Circe, embodied the archetype of the alluring yet dangerous woman who knew the secret powers of nature.

In Rome, magic was at times punished as a criminal act when considered harmful, yet tolerated when used for healing or divination. The magical tools of the period included wax or clay figurines, herbs such as mandrake and hellebore, and invocations of deities like Hecate, who was worshipped at crossroads as the protectress of magic and ghosts. Sources such as the Greek Magical Papyri (Betz, 1992) and Johnston’s Defixiones: Curse Tablets of the Ancient World (1999) demonstrate that magic in the Greco-Roman world was not a quaint or marginal practice but a vital part of social and religious life—stretching from temples to the thresholds of ordinary homes.

From the shaman beating his drum to the Greek inscribing a lead curse tablet, magic throughout antiquity remained the same essential act: humanity’s attempt to stand before the invisible and direct it. The tools and symbols change, the names of the gods shift, yet the intention remains constant—protection, control, knowledge, power. Magic was, and still is, the language through which human beings seek to converse with the unknown.

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